Circular chemistry (CC) is an approach for establishing chemical processes to become truly circular and sustainable. It adopts the principles of circular economy (CE), employing life cycle approaches and systems thinking, which help to understand and address the sustainability issues of chemical processes and products. Within this whole context, it is possible to identify some problems of the current lifestyle, such as plastic waste disposal, CO2 emission, e-waste, among others, which need to be addressed accordingly. The reuse provided, well-structured within the context of circular chemistry, can bring benefits in all spheres: social, environmental and economic. Thus, the purpose of this revision is to present CE and CC as the pillars for a sustainable development, bringing discussions about: CE and CC systems; sustainable chemistry; and chemistry 4.0, which embeds digitization, sustainability, and circular economy in industrial chemical processes. Through the knowledge of chemistry, both CC and CE can contribute with innovative methods and processes which maximize benefits, eliminating, or, at least, reducing adverse impacts, thus contributing to construct a mutually beneficial relationship between science and society, its surroundings, and the environment. Therefore, implementing this new model is an opportunity that challenges the human imagination in building a better world.

The glycerol oxidative dehydration to organic compounds, especially acrolein and acrylic acid, was studied over vanadium, molybdenum, and cobalt oxides supported on niobium oxide and niobium phosphate catalysts. At 300 °C, the glycerol conversion was 100% over all catalysts tested, and acrolein was the main product observed, without significant deactivation within the time on stream studied. Except for Co/V/Nb2O5, acrylic acid was formed over all catalysts, but the selectivity was not higher than 10%. Acetaldehyde and acetic acid were the other organic oxygenated products formed. Although the catalysts supported over Nb2O5 presented significantly lower acidity than the catalysts supported over NbOPO4, they showed 100% glycerol conversion, indicating that the dehydration of glycerol does not require strong acidity. These data indicate the potential of niobium-based supports in the development of an active and selective catalyst for the glycerol oxidehydration to acrolein and acrylic acid, chemicals of great importance in the industry.

Carbon dioxide capture and conversion is gaining increased attention due to climate change issues. The direct air capture of CO2 may be accomplished with functionalized adsorbents that can work at atmospheric pressure and room temperature. The captured CO2 may be converted into fuels and chemicals. CO2 can be hydrogenated to methanol, which is a commodity used in the fuel and chemical sectors, over Cu.ZnO-based catalysts. Improvements to catalyst formulation are still needed to operate at lower temperatures. Dimethyl ether can be directly produced from CO2 and H2 through the use of bifunctional catalysts. Organic carbonates appear as promising compounds of wide use in the chemical sector. Cyclic carbonates may be produced from CO2 and epoxides with the use of Lewis acids catalyst. Zeolites impregnated with metal halides appear to be a promising system to achieve high conversion and selectivity. Aliphatic organic carbonates can be produced from CO2 and alcohols, but the reaction presents thermodynamic limitations. The role of oxygen vacancies on CeO2-based catalysts and use of dehydrating agents in the production of dimethyl carbonate will be discussed in this account. The challenges and future perspectives for the direct air CO2 capture and conversion into fuels and chemicals will be addressed.

The crescent number of scientific articles published per year shows that research on biodiesel continues to play an important role to support the growing demand for this biofuel. The second edition of Biodiesel: An Overview presents the worldwide research in the last 15 years. Microalgae biomass is the most studied raw material alternative in this period and several studies have been carried out to develop basic heterogeneous catalysts for biodiesel production. Concerning to production technologies, supercritical conditions and intensification process have been extensively investigated. The development of new antioxidants additives has focused mainly on biomass-derived formulations and there are few studies on biocide candidates. In terms of pollutant emissions, in general, the studies showed that the addition of biodiesel generates lower concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), CO and n-alkanes pollutants, but carbonyl compounds, major ions and NOx are emitted in a higher concentration compared to pure diesel.

A continuous-flow process at atmospheric pressure was designed for the conversion of glycerol to solketal, an oxygenated fuel additive, through the acid-catalyzed reaction of glycerol with acetone. Process optimization was performed by checking the influence of different variables on the conversion and selectivity. The variables examined were: residence time (12, 24, 60 and 120 min), catalyst type (Amberlyst-15 and K-10 Montmorillonite), catalyst loading (7, 3, and 1 g), reaction temperature (50, 40 and 30 ºC), molar ratio of the reactants (1:2, 1:5, 1:10, 1:15 and 1:20) and solvent used to homogenize the system (dimethylsulfoxide or dimethylformamide). The highest conversion (92%) was observed with 7.0 g of Amberlyst-15, reaction temperature of 50 °C, molar ratio of glycerol to acetone of 1:20 and dimethylformamide as solvent. In all cases, solketal isomers (five and six-membered ring ketals) were the only product observed. The results of solketal formation of this study, carried out at atmospheric pressure, were similar to other studies with pressures of up to 120 bar. The utilization of higher catalyst loading and molar ratio of reactants compensate the use of atmospheric pressure to achieve high conversion levels and selectivity to the desired product

Foram realizados cálculos de teoria do funcional da densidade (DFT) de intermediários e estados de transição da reação entre o CO2 e metanol sobre catalisadores do tipo R2Sn(OCH3)2. A interação da molécula de CO2 com o catalisador de estanho é controlada pelo termo entrópico, sendo desfavorecida à temperatura ambiente e pressão atmosférica. Por outro lado, a inserção da molécula de CO2 na ligação Sn–OCH3 é termodinamicamente favorecida para todos os catalisadores estudados. A energia livre de ativação calculada varia com a natureza do substituinte R. Grupos fenila apresentam a menor barreira, enquanto que os átomos de halogênio, as mais elevadas. Os grupos alquila apresentam barreiras intermediárias. Os cálculos estão de acordo com resultados experimentais recentes, que indicaram uma maior frequência de rotação da reação (TON) para a formação de dimetil carbonato (DMC) quando Ph2SnO foi usado como catalisador. O esquema mecanístico completo foi calculado para os substituintes fenila e metila, considerando uma espécie de estanho dimérica.

Density functional theory (DFT) calculations of intermediates and transition states of the reaction between CO2 and methanol over different R2Sn(OCH3)2 catalysts (R = alkyl, phenyl and halogens) were carried out. The interaction of the CO2 molecule with the tin catalyst was controlled by the entropic term, being disfavored at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. On the other hand, the insertion of the CO2 molecule into the Sn–OCH3 bond is thermodynamic favorable for all the catalysts studied. The computed free-energy of activation varied with the nature of the substituent R. Phenyl groups exhibit the smallest barrier, whereas halogen atoms the highest. Alkyl groups present intermediate barriers. The results are in agreement with recent experimental results that indicated a higher turnover number (TON) for dimethylcarbonate (DMC) formation when Ph2SnO was used as catalyst. The whole mechanistic scheme was then computed for phenyl and methyl as substituents, considering a dimer tin species.

Foi realizado um estudo teórico da inserção de carbenos (CH2 e CHCHO) na estrutura cristalina da zeólita Y. O método our own n-layered integrated molecular orbital and molecular mechanics (ONIOM) M062x/6-31G(d,p):PM6 foi utilizado para descrever a inserção do metileno (CH2) nas ligações T-O (T = Si ou Al) da rede resultando em quatro estruturas isômeras. Em todos os casos os cálculos indicaram uma alta exotermicidade para a inserção do metileno na rede cristalina, independentemente da multiplicidade do carbeno (singlete ou triplete). A inserção na ligação O-H ácida para formar um grupo metóxi adsorvido foi o processo mais favorável, mas este caminho não ocorre se a inserção é feita na zeólita desprotonada. A inserção do formil-carbeno (CHCHO) cria centros quirais na estrutura cristalina. A acidez da zeólita após a inserção dos carbenos foi calculada usando a energia de desprotonação. Os cálculos predizem a possibilidade de desenvolver zeólitas ácidas com centros quirais, que poderiam imitar enzimas, especialmente para uso em processos de química fina e transformação de biomassa.

A theoretical study of the insertion of carbenes (CH2, CHCHO) in the framework structure of zeolite Y was carried out. The "our own n-layered integrated molecular orbital and molecular mechanics" (ONIOM) scheme M062x/6-31G(d,p):PM6 was used to describe the insertion of methylene (CH2) in the T-O bonds (T = Si, Al) of the framework yielding four isomeric structures. In all cases, calculations indicated a high exothermic process for the insertion of methylene in the framework, regardless of the spin multiplicity of the carbene (singlet or triplet). Insertion into the acidic O-H bond to afford an adsorbed methoxy group was the most favourable process, but this pathway does not occur if insertion is carried out on the deprotonated zeolite. Insertion of formylcarbene (CHCHO) creates chiral sites in the framework. The acidity of the zeolite structures after carbene insertion was calculated by means of the deprotonation energy. The calculations predicted the possibility of designing acidic zeolites with chiral sites that could mimic enzymes, especially for uses in fine chemical processes and biomass transformations.

A desidratação oxidativa do glicerol a ácido acrílico foi estudada com o uso de zeólita Beta impregnada com vanádio. Os catalisadores foram preparados por impregnação úmida do metavanadato de amônio sobre a zeólita Beta na forma amoniacal, seguida de calcinação em ar a 823 K. A impregnação reduziu a área superficial específica, mas não afetou significativamente a acidez (Brønsted e Lewis) da zeólita. A avaliação dos catalisadores foi realizada num reator de leito fixo usando ar como gás de arraste e injetando o glicerol por meio de uma bomba seringa. Acroleína foi o principal produto formado, tendo também sido observados acetaldeído e hidróxi-acetona (acetol). O ácido acrílico foi formado em aproximadamente 25% de seletividade a 548 K sobre as zeólitas impregnadas. O resultado pode ser explicado por análises de XPS (espectroscopia fotoeletrônica de raios X), que mostraram uma boa dispersão de vanádio nos poros da zeólita.

The oxidative dehydration of glycerol to acrylic acid was studied over vanadium-impregnated zeolite Beta. Catalysts were prepared by wet impregnation of ammonium metavanadate over ammonium-exchanged zeolite Beta, followed by air calcination at 823 K. Impregnation reduced the specific surface area, but did not significantly affected the acidity (Brønsted and Lewis) of the zeolites. The catalytic evaluation was carried out in a fixed bed flow reactor using air as the carrier and injecting glycerol by means of a syringe pump. Acrolein was the main product, with acetaldehyde and hydroxy-acetone (acetol) being also formed. Acrylic acid was formed with approximately 25% selectivity at 548 K over the impregnated zeolites. The result can be explained by XPS (X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy) measurements, which indicated a good dispersion of the vanadium inside the pores.

This contribution discusses the state of the art and the challenges in producing biofuels, as well as the need to develop chemical conversion processes of CO2 in Brazil. Biofuels are sustainable alternatives to fossil fuels for providing energy, whilst minimizing the effects of CO2 emissions into the atmosphere. Ethanol from fermentation of simple sugars and biodiesel produced from oils and fats are the first-generation of biofuels available in the country. However, they are preferentially produced from edible feedstocks (sugar cane and vegetable oils), which limits the expansion of national production. In addition, environmental issues, as well as political and societal pressures, have promoted the development of 2nd and 3rd generation biofuels. These biofuels are based on lignocellulosic biomass from agricultural waste and wood processing, and on algae, respectively. Cellulosic ethanol, from fermentation of cellulose-derived sugars, and hydrocarbons in the range of liquid fuels (gasoline, jet, and diesel fuels) produced through thermochemical conversion processes are considered biofuels of the new generation. Nevertheless, the available 2nd and 3rd generation biofuels, and those under development, have to be subsidized for inclusion in the consumer market. Therefore, one of the greatest challenges in the biofuels area is their competitive large-scale production in relation to fossil fuels. Owing to this, fossil fuels, based on petroleum, coal and natural gas, will be around for many years to come. Thus, it is necessary to utilize the inevitable CO2 released by the combustion processes in a rational and economical way. Chemical transformation processes of CO2 into methanol, hydrocarbons and organic carbonates are attractive and relatively easy to implement in the short-to-medium terms. However, the low reactivity of CO2 and the thermodynamic limitations in terms of conversion and yield of products remain challenges to be overcome in the development of sustainable CO2 conversion processes.

Foi investigado o efeito da temperatura, razão molar e quantidade de catalisador na hidrólise ácida do cetal de glicerol/acetona (solketal) e acetais de glicerol/formaldeído. A reatividade do solketal foi bem maior que a dos acetais de glicerol/formaldeído. A 80 ºC, 5:1 de razão molar água/cetal e uma quantidade de catalisador correspondendo a 3.0 mmol de sítios ácidos (amberlyst-15), a hidrólise do solketal foi praticamente quantitativa, enquanto os acetais de glicerol/formaldeído apresentaram cerca de 40% de conversão. A maior reatividade do solketal para hidrólise pode ser associada à formação de um carbocátion terciário como intermediário, enquanto no caso dos acetais de glicerol/formaldeído a hidrólise acontece via deslocamento nucleofílico direto. Cálculos teóricos no nível DFT sobre a estabilidade relativa dos acetais e cetais com anéis de cinco e seis membros explicam a distribuição experimental dos isômeros.

The effect of temperature, molar ratio and catalyst loading on the acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of glycerol/acetone ketal (solketal) and glycerol/formaldehyde acetals was studied. The reactivity of the solketal was significantly higher than the glycerol/formaldehyde acetals. At 80 ºC, 5:1 water/ketal molar ratio and 3.0 mmol of catalyst loading (amberlyst-15) the hydrolysis of the solketal was almost complete, whereas the glycerol/formaldehyde acetals showed around 40% conversion. The higher reactivity of solketal toward hydrolysis is associated with the formation of a tertiary carbocation intermediate, whereas in the case of glycerol/formaldehyde acetals hydrolysis takes place through direct nucleophilic displacement. DFT theoretical calculations of the relative stability of the ketal and acetal isomers, having five and six-membered rings, explain the experimental distribution.

A natureza dos carbocátions adsorvidos na superfície da zeólita é discutida neste artigo, destacando estudos experimentais e teóricos. A adsorção de halogenetos de alquila sobre zeólitas trocadas com metais tem sido usada para estudar o equilíbrio entre alcóxidos, que são espécies covalentes, e carbocátions, que têm natureza iônica. Cálculos teóricos indicam que os carbocátions são mínimos (intermediários) na superfície de energia potencial e estabilizados por ligações hidrogênio com os átomos de oxigênio da estrutura zeolítica. Os resultados indicam que zeólitas se comportam como solventes sólidos, estabilizando a formação de espécies iônicas.

The nature of carbocations on the zeolite surface is discussed in this account, highlighting experimental and theoretical studies. The adsorption of alkylhalides over metal-exchanged zeolites has been used to study the equilibrium between covalent alkoxides and ionic carbocations. Theoretical calculations indicated that the carbocations are minima (intermediates) on the potential energy surface and stabilized by hydrogen bonds with the framework oxygen atoms. The results indicate that zeolites behave like solid solvents, stabilizing the formation of ionic species.

Foi realizado um estudo teórico da transferência de hidreto entre o cátion 1-adamantila e isopentano, usando a teoria do funcional da densidade em nível PBE1PBE/6-31G(d,p). Os resultados indicaram que há formação de um íon carbônio como intermediário, que é mais estável que os complexos de van der Waals entre os íons carbênios e os alcanos. Os fatores entrópicos são bastante importantes e sobrepujam o termo entálpico à temperatura ambiente.

A density functional teory study of the hydride transfer between 1-adamantyl cation and isopentane has been performed at the PBE1PBE/6-31G(d,p) theoretical level. The results indicate that a carbonium ion is involved as intermediate and is more stable than the van der Waals complexes between the carbenium ions and the alkanes. Entropic factors are important and overcome the enthalpic term at room temperature.

Neste trabalho apresentamos os resultados da eterificação do glicerol com álcool benzílico, catalisada por diferentes sólidos ácidos. O mono-éter benzílico do glicerol foi o produto principal nas reações com a zeólita β e a resina ácida Amberlyst-35. Já o éter-di-benzílico foi o produto majoritário nas reações com o ácido p-tolueno-sulfônico e a argila K-10 como catalisadores. O ácido nióbico foi inativo na reação. A estrutura porosa da zeólita impediu a formação significativa de produtos de di e tri eterificação.

In this work we present the results of glycerol etherification with benzyl alcohol, catalyzed by different solid acids. The mono-benzyl-glycerol ether was the main product in the reactions catalyzed by β zeolite and Amberlyst-35 acid resin, whereas di-benzyl-ether was formed in higher yield with the use of p-toluene-sulfonic acid and K-10 montmorillonite as catalyst. Niobic acid was inactive in this reaction. The porous structure of the zeolite impaired the formation of di and tri-benzyl-glycerol ethers.

Glycerol is a byproduct of biodiesel production through transesterification of oils and fat. This article discusses the chemical transformation of glycerol in ethers, acetals and esters of high technological applications, especially in the fuel sector. Glycerol hydrogenolysis, dehydration to acrolein and oxidation are discussed as well, to show the potential use of glycerol for production of plastic monomers. Finally, the article shows other transformations, such as syn gas production, epichloridrin and glycerin carbonate.

Cálculos teóricos da reação do cátion formila (CHO+) com tolueno, cumeno e p-cresol mostraram que a transferência de próton é termodinamicamente preferida em relação a acilação. No caso do tolueneo, a acilação do anel aromático, para formação do complexo de Wheland, é 11,7 kcal mol-1 mais alta em energia (ΔH) que a protonação, em nível de cálculo MP4(SDTQ)/ 6-31++G(d,p)//MP2(full)/6-31G(d,p). Esta diferença diminui com a introdução de um grupo hidroxila no anel (p-cresol) ou substituindo o grupo metila por isopropila (cumeno). A protonação do tolueno pelo H3+ e pelo cátion isoformila é, respectivamente, 88,6 e 84,5 kcal mol-1 mais exotérmica que a acilação em nível MP4(SDTQ)/6-31++G(d,p)//MP2(full)/6-31G(d,p). A afinidade protônica do p-cresol foi calculada como sendo 195,4 kcal mol-1.

Theoretical calculations of the reaction of formyl cation (CHO+) with toluene, cumene and p-cresol showed that proton transfer is thermodynamically preferred over acylation. For toluene, acylation of the aromatic ring, to form the Wheland complex, is 11.7 kcal mol-1 higher in energy (ΔH) than protonation, at MP4(SDTQ)/6-31++G(d,p)//MP2(full)/6-31G(d,p) level of theory. This difference reduces upon introduction of a hydroxy group in the ring (p-cresol) or replacing the methyl group by an isopropyl group (cumene). Protonation of toluene by H3+ and isoformyl cation is 88.6 and 84.5 kcal mol-1, respectively, more exothermic than acylation, at MP4(SDTQ)/6-31++G(d,p)//MP2(full)/6-31G(d,p). The proton affinity of p-cresol was calculated to be 195.4 kcal mol-1.